Bookshops began to crop up all over Muslim lands by the 9th and 10th Centuries. The proliferation of books also meant that libraries became widespread.

The 'House of Wisdom' was established in Baghdad in the 9th century, staffed by both Christian and Muslim scholars.

The famous 9th century physician al-Razi was the first to describe smallpox, and how to distinguish it from measles. He also classified substances into mineral, vegetable and animal and was probably the first to make sulphuric acid.

Colleges and universities became widespread in the Muslim world. Al-Azhar, established over a thousand years ago in Cairo, is one of the first such institutions.

The 10th century surgeon al-Zahrawi was the first to develop sophisticated surgical tools for operations. He also made plaster to help broken bones heal. Al-Zahrawi developed pioneering operative techniques, including the caesarean section.